Friday, 21 December 2007
Asthma
Asthma is a common chronic inflammatory condition of the lung airways, whose cause is incompletely undrstood. It has three characteristics, air flow limitation which is ususally reversible, airway hyperresoponsiveness to a range of stimuli, and inflammation of the brochi.
Friday, 14 December 2007
Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is a rapid, uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in one or both breasts. It is the most common type of cancer in women, but it is often cured when found early
The exact cause of breast cancer is not known. Some women with breast cancer have genetic risk factors called mutations in BRCA genes. You also have a higher risk of breast cancer if a member of your family, especially your mother, father, or sister, has breast cancer. However, many women who have breast cancer do not have any of these risks.
Female hormones and increasing age also play a part. The chances that you will develop breast cancer increase as you grow older. About 1 in every 7 women in the United States will be diagnosed with breast cancer if she lives to be 80.
If your doctor thinks you might have breast cancer, he or she will want to test the abnormal cells in the breast using a procedure called a biopsy. This is sometimes done by inserting a needle into the abnormal area and taking a few sample cells (needle biopsy). At other times the entire suspicious area will be removed through a small incision in your breast. The sample is then examined under a microscope by a pathologist to see if it contains cancer cells.
The most common symptom of breast cancer is a painless lump in the breast. However, early breast cancer is often found on a mammogram before a lump can be felt.
Other symptoms of breast cancer may not appear until the cancer is more advanced. These include:
1. A thickening in the breast or armpit.
2. A change in the size or shape of the breast.
3. Changes in the skin of the breast, such as a dimple or skin that looks like orange peel.
4. A change in the nipple, such as scaling of the skin, a nipple that turns in, or discharge or bleeding.
5. A change in the color or feel of the skin around the nipple (areola).
Many people believe that only women have breast cancer. But, although much less common, about 1% of all breast cancer occurs in adult men. Most men who are diagnosed with breast cancer are older than 65, but the disease can appear in younger men. For this reason, any breast lump in an adult male is considered abnormal.
The exact cause of breast cancer is not known. Some women with breast cancer have genetic risk factors called mutations in BRCA genes. You also have a higher risk of breast cancer if a member of your family, especially your mother, father, or sister, has breast cancer. However, many women who have breast cancer do not have any of these risks.
Female hormones and increasing age also play a part. The chances that you will develop breast cancer increase as you grow older. About 1 in every 7 women in the United States will be diagnosed with breast cancer if she lives to be 80.
If your doctor thinks you might have breast cancer, he or she will want to test the abnormal cells in the breast using a procedure called a biopsy. This is sometimes done by inserting a needle into the abnormal area and taking a few sample cells (needle biopsy). At other times the entire suspicious area will be removed through a small incision in your breast. The sample is then examined under a microscope by a pathologist to see if it contains cancer cells.
The most common symptom of breast cancer is a painless lump in the breast. However, early breast cancer is often found on a mammogram before a lump can be felt.
Other symptoms of breast cancer may not appear until the cancer is more advanced. These include:
1. A thickening in the breast or armpit.
2. A change in the size or shape of the breast.
3. Changes in the skin of the breast, such as a dimple or skin that looks like orange peel.
4. A change in the nipple, such as scaling of the skin, a nipple that turns in, or discharge or bleeding.
5. A change in the color or feel of the skin around the nipple (areola).
Many people believe that only women have breast cancer. But, although much less common, about 1% of all breast cancer occurs in adult men. Most men who are diagnosed with breast cancer are older than 65, but the disease can appear in younger men. For this reason, any breast lump in an adult male is considered abnormal.
Physiology of Heart
The heart is the muscular organ of the circulatory system that constantly pumps blood throughout the body. Approximately the size of a clenched fist, the heart is composed of cardiac muscle tissue that is very strong and able to contract and relax rhythmically throughout a person's lifetime.
The heart has four separate compartments or chambers. The upper chamber on each side of the heart, which is called an atrium, receives and collects the blood coming to the heart. The atrium then delivers blood to the powerful lower chamber, called a ventricle, which pumps blood away from the heart through powerful, rhythmic contractions.
The human heart is actually two pumps in one. The right side receives oxygen-poor blood from the various regions of the body and delivers it to the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen is absorbed in the blood. The left side of the heartreceives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and delivers it to the rest of the body.
The heart has four separate compartments or chambers. The upper chamber on each side of the heart, which is called an atrium, receives and collects the blood coming to the heart. The atrium then delivers blood to the powerful lower chamber, called a ventricle, which pumps blood away from the heart through powerful, rhythmic contractions.
The human heart is actually two pumps in one. The right side receives oxygen-poor blood from the various regions of the body and delivers it to the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen is absorbed in the blood. The left side of the heartreceives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and delivers it to the rest of the body.
Thursday, 13 December 2007
Death
Death is manifestated as the cessation of respiration and heart-beat caused by physiologec dysfunction, generally related to an illness or trauma that overwhelms the compensatory mechanisms of the body. Direct causes of death include respiratory failure (PCO2 accumulation an PO2 deficit) and hypovolemic, septic, or cardiogenic shock manifested as inadequate blood flow to the tissues depribes cells of their source of oxygen and biochemical exchange-the ultimate factor in their death.
Pain
Pain is the number one symptom or complaint that causes people to seek health care. It alters or compromises quality of life more than any other single health-realated problem. Despite more than 20 years of work by clinicians and profesional organizations, There have been only slight imporvements in pain management. Unrelieved and undertreated pain remains a major yet avoidable public health problem in the United Stated.
Everyone experiences pain at some pont in life. Although this is likely a universal experience, it is also a complex and private one. Because pain is such a personal experience, it is ery difficult to describe or explain to others. Many factors make it hared to understand and assess, including pychosociaal, cultural, and development factors; the influence of gender and environment; and the subjectivity of the pain itself. The amount of pain adn resposes to it vary from person to person , and therefore interpreting pain solely on action or behaviors can be misleading.
Everyone experiences pain at some pont in life. Although this is likely a universal experience, it is also a complex and private one. Because pain is such a personal experience, it is ery difficult to describe or explain to others. Many factors make it hared to understand and assess, including pychosociaal, cultural, and development factors; the influence of gender and environment; and the subjectivity of the pain itself. The amount of pain adn resposes to it vary from person to person , and therefore interpreting pain solely on action or behaviors can be misleading.
Friday, 7 December 2007
HIV
Retroviruses. Currrently designates the AIDS virus. There are two main types: HIV-1 causes HIV in North America, Central Africa and Western Europa, and Hiv-2 causing similar disease in West Africa. Cell-mediated immunity is copromised which leads to an increased susceptibility to opportunistic infection such as Pneumocystis carinii and unusual malignant diseases, e.g Koposi's sarcoma. Management involves the use of antiviral drugs, usually in combination to prevent resistance, and antimicrobial drugs to reduce to risk of opportunistic infection. The virus is spread by contact with blood and other body fluids. This may occur through sexual contact, drug users sharing equipment, accidental exposure, such as through needlestick injuries, or by the tranfusion of infected blood/blood products. Prophylactic treatmen-t is offered following occupational exposure, and to prenant women found to be HIV-positive to reduce the risk of transmission to the fetus -->acquried immune deficiency syndrome.
Wednesday, 5 December 2007
Running
Equipment:
A pair of running shoes and clothing appropriate for the weather are all you need. A pair shoes will cost anywhere from $40 to $120. Make sure you buy shoes that are the proper size. Feet have varied shapes (even on the same person). Running shoes also have different shapes. Visit your local running shoe store and assure yourself (by asking questions) that sales personnel have sufficient knowledge of shoe characteristics and your training plans.
Variations:
Jogging for exercise: This can be part of a regular routine or a type of cross-training if your primary exercise activity is swimming, aerobics, etc.
Moderate Distance: This includes preparing or training for 5K and 10K runs.
Long Distance: This includes more ambitious distances such as half-marathons (13.1 miles) and marathons (26.2 miles).
Cross Country: Running outdoors on varied terrain over varied distances.
Aqua Running: A good low-impact alternative in which you run in a pool while wearing a flotation vest.
Short Distance: Generally varies from 100 meters to 1 mile and requires faster speeds.
For those seeking social interaction as part of their running activity, local running clubs/organizations offer weekly club runs. Camaraderie among recreational runners is legendary, take advantage of it!
Muscle Groups:
Running involves the lower body (the ankles, knees, and hips). Specifically, running works the hip flexors, the quadriceps, the hamstrings, and the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles.
Guidelines:
Risks:
Injury is always a possibility, especially in the area of the knee and foot. If you plan to begin a running program, ease into it gradually. Do not increase distance more than 10 percent per week. Pulled muscles and other related aches and pains can be avoided with a proper warm-up.
Safety: Take your runs in familiar neighborhoods close to home. Try to avoid busy streets and intersections - pedestrians rarely appear on automobile drivers’ radar screens. Running at dusk, dawn, or in darkness, when visibility is low, requires that you wear bright and reflective clothing.
Concerns:
Do not increase distance or intensity too quickly.
A pair of running shoes and clothing appropriate for the weather are all you need. A pair shoes will cost anywhere from $40 to $120. Make sure you buy shoes that are the proper size. Feet have varied shapes (even on the same person). Running shoes also have different shapes. Visit your local running shoe store and assure yourself (by asking questions) that sales personnel have sufficient knowledge of shoe characteristics and your training plans.
Variations:
Jogging for exercise: This can be part of a regular routine or a type of cross-training if your primary exercise activity is swimming, aerobics, etc.
Moderate Distance: This includes preparing or training for 5K and 10K runs.
Long Distance: This includes more ambitious distances such as half-marathons (13.1 miles) and marathons (26.2 miles).
Cross Country: Running outdoors on varied terrain over varied distances.
Aqua Running: A good low-impact alternative in which you run in a pool while wearing a flotation vest.
Short Distance: Generally varies from 100 meters to 1 mile and requires faster speeds.
For those seeking social interaction as part of their running activity, local running clubs/organizations offer weekly club runs. Camaraderie among recreational runners is legendary, take advantage of it!
Muscle Groups:
Running involves the lower body (the ankles, knees, and hips). Specifically, running works the hip flexors, the quadriceps, the hamstrings, and the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles.
Guidelines:
Risks:
Injury is always a possibility, especially in the area of the knee and foot. If you plan to begin a running program, ease into it gradually. Do not increase distance more than 10 percent per week. Pulled muscles and other related aches and pains can be avoided with a proper warm-up.
Safety: Take your runs in familiar neighborhoods close to home. Try to avoid busy streets and intersections - pedestrians rarely appear on automobile drivers’ radar screens. Running at dusk, dawn, or in darkness, when visibility is low, requires that you wear bright and reflective clothing.
Concerns:
Do not increase distance or intensity too quickly.
Cataracts
What is a cataract?
A cataract is a painless, cloudy area in the lens of the eye that blocks the passage of light to the retina. The retina is the nerve layer at the back of the eye. Cataracts usually cause vision problems.
See an illustration of a cataracts.
What causes cataracts?
A cataract occurs when the lens of the eye becomes cloudy. Aging and exposure to ultraviolet radiation can cause cataracts. Changes in the lens of the eye are often a normal part of the aging process and are common in older people, but they do not necessarily lead to cataracts.
Cataracts can also occur after an eye injury, as a result of eye disease, after the use of certain medications, or as a result of medical conditions such as diabetics.
Sometimes children are born with cataracts.
What are the symptoms of cataracts?
Not all cataracts affect vision. However, cataracts can cause cloudy, fuzzy, or foggy vision and glare from lamps or the sun. Driving at night may be difficult because of severe glare produced by headlights. You may need frequent changes to your eyeglasses prescription, and you may experience double vision in one eye or second sight, a temporary improvement in near vision in farsighted people.
How are cataracts diagnosed?
Cataracts are diagnosed with a physical exam and medical history. Further testing may be used to confirm the presence of a cataract or rule out other conditions that may be affecting vision.
How are cataracts treated?
Surgery is the only effective means of treating vision loss caused by cataracts.
Whether or not you need to have cataract surgery depends on the degree to which the cataract interferes with your daily activities. Surgery is almost always by choice (elective) and can be scheduled when it is convenient.
Cataracts in older adults do not always need to be removed. The vision loss that results from cataracts often develops slowly and may never become severe. Many people with cataracts adapt very well with the help of eyeglasses, contacts, and other vision aids and are able to avoid or delay surgery
A cataract is a painless, cloudy area in the lens of the eye that blocks the passage of light to the retina. The retina is the nerve layer at the back of the eye. Cataracts usually cause vision problems.
See an illustration of a cataracts.
What causes cataracts?
A cataract occurs when the lens of the eye becomes cloudy. Aging and exposure to ultraviolet radiation can cause cataracts. Changes in the lens of the eye are often a normal part of the aging process and are common in older people, but they do not necessarily lead to cataracts.
Cataracts can also occur after an eye injury, as a result of eye disease, after the use of certain medications, or as a result of medical conditions such as diabetics.
Sometimes children are born with cataracts.
What are the symptoms of cataracts?
Not all cataracts affect vision. However, cataracts can cause cloudy, fuzzy, or foggy vision and glare from lamps or the sun. Driving at night may be difficult because of severe glare produced by headlights. You may need frequent changes to your eyeglasses prescription, and you may experience double vision in one eye or second sight, a temporary improvement in near vision in farsighted people.
How are cataracts diagnosed?
Cataracts are diagnosed with a physical exam and medical history. Further testing may be used to confirm the presence of a cataract or rule out other conditions that may be affecting vision.
How are cataracts treated?
Surgery is the only effective means of treating vision loss caused by cataracts.
Whether or not you need to have cataract surgery depends on the degree to which the cataract interferes with your daily activities. Surgery is almost always by choice (elective) and can be scheduled when it is convenient.
Cataracts in older adults do not always need to be removed. The vision loss that results from cataracts often develops slowly and may never become severe. Many people with cataracts adapt very well with the help of eyeglasses, contacts, and other vision aids and are able to avoid or delay surgery
Monday, 3 December 2007
Herniated Disc - Cause
Cause
A herniated disc usually is caused by wear and tear of the disc (also called disc degeneration). As we age, our vertebral discs lose some of the fluid that helps them maintain flexibility. A herniated disc also may result from injuries to the spine, which may cause tiny tears or cracks in the outer layer (annulus or capsule) of the disc. The jellylike material inside the disc (nucleus) may be forced out through the tears or cracks in the capsule, which causes the disc to bulge, break open (rupture), or break into fragments. See an illustration of a herniated disc.
Injury to the disc can occur from:
A sudden heavy strain or increased pressure to the lower back. Sometimes a sudden twisting movement or even a sneeze will force some of the nucleus—the material inside the disc—out through the disc's outer layer (annulus or capsule).
Activities that are done over and over again that may stress the lower back, including poor lifting habits, prolonged exposure to vibration, or sports-related injuries.
A herniated disc usually is caused by wear and tear of the disc (also called disc degeneration). As we age, our vertebral discs lose some of the fluid that helps them maintain flexibility. A herniated disc also may result from injuries to the spine, which may cause tiny tears or cracks in the outer layer (annulus or capsule) of the disc. The jellylike material inside the disc (nucleus) may be forced out through the tears or cracks in the capsule, which causes the disc to bulge, break open (rupture), or break into fragments. See an illustration of a herniated disc.
Injury to the disc can occur from:
A sudden heavy strain or increased pressure to the lower back. Sometimes a sudden twisting movement or even a sneeze will force some of the nucleus—the material inside the disc—out through the disc's outer layer (annulus or capsule).
Activities that are done over and over again that may stress the lower back, including poor lifting habits, prolonged exposure to vibration, or sports-related injuries.
Transurethral prostatectomy for prostatitis
Surgery Overview
This procedure involves removal of part of the prostate gland through the urethra.
A long, thin tube with a viewing instrument (cytoscope) attached is inserted into the urethra. Prostate tissue is removed through the cytoscope.
What To Expect After Surgery
You are usually hospitalized for 2 to 3 days. Complete recovery generally requires 3 to 4 weeks.
Why It Is Done
This surgery may be done for:
Chronic bacterial prostatis that resists antibiotic treatment, with or without infected prostate stones (prostatic calculi).
Repeated urinary tract infections because of another prostate problem for which surgery may be appropriate, such as prostate enlargement (benign protatic hyperplasia, BPH).
How Well It Works
Few men with chronic bacterial prostatitis have their symptoms improve after this surgery.
Risks
Urinary incontinence
Inability to get or maintain an erection (erectile dysfunction)
What To Think About
To eliminate category II (chronic bacterial) prostatitis successfully, the surgery must completely remove the portion of the prostate that contains the infection.
Complete the surgery information form (PDF) (What is a PDF document?) to help you prepare for this surgery.
References
Citations
Nickel JC (2002). Prostatitis and related conditions. In PC Walsh et al., eds., Campbell's Urology, 8th ed., vol. 1, pp. 603–630. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
This procedure involves removal of part of the prostate gland through the urethra.
A long, thin tube with a viewing instrument (cytoscope) attached is inserted into the urethra. Prostate tissue is removed through the cytoscope.
What To Expect After Surgery
You are usually hospitalized for 2 to 3 days. Complete recovery generally requires 3 to 4 weeks.
Why It Is Done
This surgery may be done for:
Chronic bacterial prostatis that resists antibiotic treatment, with or without infected prostate stones (prostatic calculi).
Repeated urinary tract infections because of another prostate problem for which surgery may be appropriate, such as prostate enlargement (benign protatic hyperplasia, BPH).
How Well It Works
Few men with chronic bacterial prostatitis have their symptoms improve after this surgery.
Risks
Urinary incontinence
Inability to get or maintain an erection (erectile dysfunction)
What To Think About
To eliminate category II (chronic bacterial) prostatitis successfully, the surgery must completely remove the portion of the prostate that contains the infection.
Complete the surgery information form (PDF) (What is a PDF document?) to help you prepare for this surgery.
References
Citations
Nickel JC (2002). Prostatitis and related conditions. In PC Walsh et al., eds., Campbell's Urology, 8th ed., vol. 1, pp. 603–630. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
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